Importance Of Operations And Supply Chain Management

Importance of Operations Organizations’ have matured over the years; they have learned and adapted to become more strategic in every aspect of their business. One way organizations’ have done this is by understanding the importance of operations and supply chain management. The author will explain how operations and supply chain management evolved to what it is today, how this is important to the company’s strategy, and define the dimensions of the quality. Evolution Everything adapts and changes as it matures. This is how things advance to the next stage of evolution. Operations and supply chain management is not exception to this rule, it too advanced. In the early years this term was never thought of, companies focused on logistics research and was concerned on how to improve material handling. By the 1960’s it was all about merging warehouse, transportation and material handling in to one label called Physical Distribution. (Robinson, 2015) Technology increased its evolution and by the 1970’s-1980’s computers optimized the system for companies to create programs to help with planning, storage and inventory controls. It was during this time that organizational leaders saw the importance of operations and supply chain management had on the company’s bottom line. To improve available data collected and accuracy ERP (Enterprise Resource Planning) system was implemented in the 1990’s. Technology made the biggest impact to operations and supply chain managementShow MoreRelatedBus 430 Assignment 2: Inventory Management1369 Words   |  6 PagesBUS 430 Assignment 2: Inventory Management http://homeworkfy.com/downloads/bus-430-assignment-2-inventory-management/ BUS 430 Assignment 2: Inventory Management Assignment 2: Inventory Management Due Week 8 and worth 300 points Research two (2) manufacturing or two (2) service companies that manage inventory and complete this assignment. Write a six to eight (6-8) page paper in which you: 1. Determine the types of inventories these companies currently manage and describe their essentialRead MoreSupply Chains and Inventory Management Essay1155 Words   |  5 PagesSupply Chain and Inventory Management December 6, 2008 Supply Chain and Inventory Management With the increased globalization, competition and complexity in global supply chains, more companies have realized that supply chain management is critical to the optimal organizations overall operation. It is no longer just the responsibility of the warehouse manager and logistics director (Pundir, 2008 and Wharton). In the past, many organizations didn’t manage their supply chains they left thatRead MoreLogistics Management And Supply Chain Management1171 Words   |  5 PagesLogistics and Supply Chain Management Topic: Do the terms, ‘logistics management’ and ‘supply chain management’ have the same meaning in operations and why logistics management might be of strategic importance to a manufacturing or service organisation. During last two decades, the importance of logistics has been noticed around the world. In global markets, the effects and further developments of logistics and supply chain management for corporate success has increased significantly that resultRead MoreMaterials Management Proposal1445 Words   |  6 PagesMaterials Management Proposal Laura Dean 2/7/2011 Materials Management Proposal Materials and operations management play a crucial role in the success of any organization. Of particular importance to the materials and operations divisions is management’s complete understanding of the hospitals functions as a whole entity. After reading this paper, one will understand the importance of materials management and operations management as well as how both departments must work together to ensureRead MoreStrategic Vision And Operations Planning1210 Words   |  5 Pagessuccessful supply chain management. However as 2016, Walmart closed 269 stores, this means that not all the stores are successful and there is a problem that is affecting its operations planning. Walmart by 32nd St. has operation planning problems during winter time when the population increases in the area. This report was written to understand the importance of developing a strategic vision and operations planning in order to help the store current seasonal problems. I find out that Supp ly Chain ManagementRead MoreSupply Chain Management And Healthcare Industry1745 Words   |  7 PagesSupply Chain Management –For Healthcare Industry Introduction: Economic downturn in Healthcare sector has given renewed importance to supply chain management in healthcare industry. Supply chain management has great effects on hospital organizations. On papers Supply chain accounts for 30 to 40% in healthcare industry but that is only if we consider just the cost of goods under the supply chain , instead if we look at factors like cost of inventory , cost of procuring and other costs associatedRead MoreLogistics and Supply Chain Management1168 Words   |  5 PagesTopic: Do the terms, ‘logistics management’ and ‘supply chain management’ have the same meaning in operations and why logistics management might be of strategic importance to a manufacturing or service organisation. During last two decades, the importance of logistics has been noticed around the world. In global markets, the effects and further developments of logistics and supply chain management for corporate success has increased significantly that result in a large amount of companies haveRead MoreDemand Forecasting And Supply Chain1628 Words   |  7 Pagesglobal logistics and supply chain. In general, logistics and supply chain are the key to maintain the normal operation of the business. However, globalization has changed the way the business operates, it gives companies potential threats but it also provides valuable chances. In this regard, it is necessary to manage supply chain. Demand forecasting and estimation provide significant information about the market and order, and clearly identify the potential problems in supply chain (Skiver 2015). ThisRead MoreEssay on Protecting The Supply Chain1004 Words   |  5 Pagescompany’s supply chain, the more vulnerable the company becomes. When the company’s suppliers spread further and further away from the company, the company becomes even more vulnerable to political and currency risk, cyber attacks, missed inventory goals, and failed communication with the supply chain. For a company to overcome those potential vulnerabilities, a company must build safeguards into their operations. Those safeguards include a strong corporate backing in supply chain management, solidRead MoreCanadian Tire Auto Services Main Supply Chain Strategies Essay1678 Words   |  7 PagesCanadian Tire Auto Services’ main supply chain strategies. Canadian Tire provides many automotive services for their clients with many locations across the countries. Our goal for this project will also be to look into Canadian Tire’s logistics operations, their process of sup plier selection, and evaluation. We will also look to study their use of the latest IS/IT innovations. We will then conclude our project by realizing the importance of supply chain management integration, as well as, the challenges

Integrated Theories of Criminal Justice Essay example

Integrated Theories of Criminal Justice Abstract Two theorist and theories that have been recognized by many involved in the criminal justice field are Ross L. Matsuedas Theory of Differential Social Control, and, Charles R. Tittles Control Balance Theory. Matsuedas theory, (1) identifies a broader range of individual-level mechanisms of social control, (2) specifying group and organizational processes for controlling delinquency, (3) conceptualizing classical criminological theories as special cases of a general interactionist framework, and (4) testing the interactionist model empirically against specific hypotheses drawn from competing theories. Tittles theory believes deviance results from the convergence of four variables: (1)†¦show more content†¦Another theoretical trend integrates traditional theories, such as anomie, disorganization, social control, labeling, differential association, and social learning theories, to increase explanatory power or link levels of explanation (Elliott, Ageton, and Canter 1979; Elliot t, Huizinga, and Ageton 1985; Pearson and Weiner 1985; Thornberry 1987). Which leads us to two theorist that have been recognized by many involved in the criminal justice field. One being, Ross L. Matsuedas Theory of Differential Social Control, and the other, Charles R. Tittles Control Balance Theory. Matsueda takes a different avenue and specifies a theory of delinquency based on unified framework of symbolic interactionist view of the self as a reflection of the appraisals of others. He (1) identifies a broader range of individual-level mechanisms of social control, (2) specifying group and organizational processes for controlling delinquency, (3) conceptualizing classical criminological theories as special cases of a general interactionist framework, and (4) testing the interactionist model empirically against specific hypotheses drawn from competing theories. Ross Matsueda uses symbolic interactionism to show how the social control of delinquency lies in an interactionist co nception of the self. He bases his explanation on Meads (1934) thesis that the self arises in problematic situations when an individual takes the role ofShow MoreRelatedAdvantages And Disadvantages Of Theory Integration1050 Words   |  5 PagesAdvantages/Disadvantages One disadvantage of theory integration the possibility of the wrong mixture of theories by criminologist which could increase the odds of a person gravitating towards criminality increase (Frame, 2009). Another disadvantage with integration is variables get missed and vital information is left out. Finally, integration can lead to misconceptions of theories. The advantage of integration different theories is that decreases repetition where two theories are relaying the same message withRead MoreThe Role Of Criminology And The Future Of Criminology1583 Words   |  7 Pagescriminologist have considered theory integration important for the future of criminology due to the flourishment of crimes in society. Researchers have begun to study crime and the punishments associated with specific crimes that do not include trust crimes such as fraud, workplace theft or income tax invasion. However, they are studying an array of criminal behaviors that involve illicit and illegal behaviors in an effort to establish how important integrated theory will affect the future of criminologyRead MoreRestorative Justice Essay954 Words   |  4 PagesRestorative justice is an innovative approach to the criminal justice system that focuses on repairing the harm caused by crimes committed. The methods used in the conventional justice system may deter the off ender from committing further crimes, but it does neither repair the harm caused, nor help them acknowledge their responsibility, instead it stigmatises them, worsening the situation instead of improving it (Johnstone 2003). â€Å"Stigmatisation is the kind of shaming that creates outcasts; it isRead MoreCriminal Behavior : Crime And Crime Essay933 Words   |  4 Pagesefining Criminal Behavior Part A: Criminal behavior Even though crime and criminal activities have existed for a while, the intensity, sophistication, art of execution, and the ultimate consequences have been profound in the current age. Simple crimes such as petty theft and corruption have grown to a larger scale in modern society, and after reviewing all existing concepts, the sociological theories befit a comprehensive explanation for criminal behavior in the present society (Cornish ClarkeRead MoreSex Crime Essay1176 Words   |  5 Pagesof special attention from the public as well as the criminal justice system. Is this because our system is a static reflection of the society/community they answer to? Sexual offense stories infiltrate every membrane of our society, from legal mores to norms, from social media to religion. Our system of justice can’t help but deliver attention to this area. Justice demands it and society needs it for interpersonal validation. The Criminal Justice system has given humans a scale to rate wha t is normalRead MoreCriminal Justice Organizational Effectiveness Essay1084 Words   |  5 Pagesachieving the desirable results is indicative of organization effectiveness. The United States Criminal Justice system is amongst the most respected governmental entities on the planet; and with a formidably structured and well developed hierarchy, history has uncovered its adaptability through operational effectiveness. Although many process, protocols, and scientifically reforms have been adopted, criminal justice practitioners and senior level leaders provide are continuously developing and revitalizingRead MoreWhat Causes Delinquent Behavior Essays931 Words   |  4 Pagesstudied the Criminal Justice System and the behavior of criminals using different forms of theories, which in turn, lead to the Classical School and the Positive School. We all use theories in our everyday life. We make assumptions about certain things, that in turn allow us to form a kind of theory or thought. We gather these assumptions very early on in life, by what we have been taught or have learned. Exactly what is a theory and how is it different form a hypothesis? A theory is a set ofRead MoreUnderstanding Criminals Essay978 Words   |  4 Pagesengage in criminal activities. We as human beings are all capable of committing or engaging in delinquent behavior. What stands in the way of a person that makes them decided to engage in deviant behavior or to choose not to commit crimes at all? We may never truly know or understand the real reasons behind why certain people make decisions like these everyday. Early philosophers and scientists looked carefully and dug deep into the Criminal Justice System and the behavior of criminals using theoriesRead MoreGeneral Theory Of Crime And Delinquency919 Words   |  4 PagesGeneral Theory of Crime and Delinquency Many theories exist including biological, psychological, and sociological theories that have been proposed by many criminologists in the criminal justice field and have been closely studied by people (Agnew, Cullen, Wilcox, 2004). Most theories are proposed at the micro level meaning it tries to explain the criminal behavior of individuals and some are proposed at the macro level which tries to explain the crime rates in social groups, meaning micro focusesRead MoreEssay on Theories of Crime and Criminal Activity1488 Words   |  6 PagesTheories of Crime and Criminal Activity Every theory of crime has at least 2-3 meta-theoretical levels above it. The fundamental issues are usually addressed at the approach level, and are often called the assumptions, or starting points, of a theory, although the term assumptions more strictly refers to the background or domain boundaries one can draw generalizations about. Above the approach level is the Perspective level, the largest unit of agreement within a scientific community, and

Important Factors In Making Decisions †MyAssignmenthelp.com

Question: Discuss about the Important Factors In Making Decisions. Answer: Introduction In any business organization themarketing department plays a very significant role as it is the driving force towards the profit maximization as well as sales maximization process. For the purpose of decision making and policy making, it is very important for every company in all industries to carry out market research. Market research helps the management of a company gather relevant and in depth information regarding the industry and the market in tendencies. Internal data and market intelligence are some of the important factors in making decisions regardingmarketing strategies (Zhao, Fan, Hu, 2014). Buying behavior is another important concept in marketing. It is the process of decision making by an individual based on the requirement of an idea, product or service back up and supported by the monetary purchasing power of that person. It is also an emotional and psychological process and hence it is easily influenced or heavily dependent on the internal, external and situational factors(Thompson Prendergast, 2015 ). Indentifying and evaluating the information needed for marketing decision making Internal data and market intelligence Internal data Internal is the data and formation that is gathered from the internal network sources of the company. The purpose of internal data is to understand the market opportunities and problem areas of the company so that a solution and a growth proposition can be planned. In case of a restaurant like Matterhorn it the sources of internal data will be firstly feedback from the customers, mostly it is notices that a book or an electronic device is used to take the inputs of the customers regarding various aspects of the restaurant. This is a gold mine of information and this information can be analyzed in order to understand the advantages and the challenges of the restaurant. Another source of internal information is the accounting, operations and financial records of the restaurant. The inventory records the rate of inflow and out flow of the inventories; the financial records help the company understand the capability of growth and credibility in terms of expansion(H. Davenport, 2014). Market Intelligence It is the gathering, understanding and reviewing of data and information that is already available in the market about the market environment, competitors of the business and growth opportunity and many more. For a restaurant business one important source of market intelligence is internet, smart usage of internet can enable the company and the management to gather a lot of information and insights about the market environment and the competitors. There is a plethora of information that is available in the internet with minimum skills a researcher can gather valuable information for the restaurant. Even menus of other competitors are available in the internet. Public gathering like food festival, food fair etc where competition and target market meet at the same place is a good source of market intelligence. By participating in such public activities gives insightful information to the company regarding many aspects of the business, many times companies even understand their shortcom ing by watching other competition work so closely(Forsgren Sabherwal, 2015). Market research brief Matterhorn has over the years established itself as a cultural hub with a list of clientele who are from diverse background offering the ambience of the setting a multicolor dimension. The menu served by the restaurant is fresh and modest, displaying the best form the natural production of New Zealand. The menus are complemented by a wide range of all types of fine wine. Established in the year 1963, this restaurant has gathered goodwill and appreciation both from the industry and the customers continuously(Greenland, Combe, Farrell, 2016). Research objective To identify the market opportunities and potentials for the betterment of the list of wine that is being served in the restaurant To analyze the business environment To understand the competition To develop a scope and plan for improvement in the list of wine To determine an average price point that existing or potential customers are willing to pay by the bottle or glass Research methodology Depending on the essence and the topic of research the company has to take up a proper planning and strategy to gather information, analyse it and then draw a conclusion. The suitable tools have been opted on the basis of the research aims and objectives that have been stated above. Both secondary and primary research has to be conducted in order to get desirable outcomes of the analysis. For secondary research menus and list of wines that are available with the competitors has to be analysed and a gap has to be recognised in the list that Matterhorn has to offer. Keeping in mind the kind of investment that is possible for the company relevant stack has to be bought. Customers feedback and one on one interview will the potential or existing customers will give an insight of what they expect from the list of wine(Al-Shatanawi, Osman, Ab Halim, 2014). Questionnaire What is your age group? 18- 25 25-45 45-60 What is your gender? Male Female How often do you like to consume wine? Once a week Once in 15 days Once a month What do you prefer? By the glass By the bottle What is the price range that you prefer for a glass of wine? $10-$20 $20-$25 $25 or more Please mention the wine that you think should be included or exempted from the existing menu? An individual comes to a restaurant to enjoy a meal with family or friends, it is unfair to take away from the fun time of the precious customers, hence the questionnaire is kept short and crisp to the point. The questions are not complicated to understand as the language is kept simple. Yet the answers to the questions will give insightful information about the preference of the people. The wine menu has large options to choose form and often people get confused and hence the last question is very important(Sarstedt Mooi, 2014). Factors effecting buying behavior Buying influence factor Individual factors The Age and the personality of an individual is one of the important aspect of personal factor with age a lifestyle choice and preference and mindset changes and with that purchase behavior also changes. Age determines the importance of one product to another and prioritizes it in the purchase process. Personality convinces a person the need or the exemption of a certain product or service that is available. Secondly the occupation of an individual affects the buying decision. For example: the requirement of a notebook is far more important to a student than a person, who is a professional plumber. During segmentation of a market business organizations keep in mind the occupation of the target market as well. Purchasing power is a direct reflection of a persons financial condition and it is one of the main factors that influence buying behavior. An individual may want to buy a lot of things but may not have the purchasing power and hence not end up buying it. Lastly lifestyle of an i ndividual is dependent on the choice of products or services he or she might be interested in using. For example a person who leads an extravagant lifestyle will want to spent money at a spa where is a person who is likes to lead a modest life will save that money for a future use or investment (Arora Banerjee, 2017). External or group factors Friends and family are the most important external group of people who influence the buying behavior of an individual. if a person is interested to buy an item but is confuse with the brand or type of product he or she should invest in, they immediately turn to the friends and family for advice and most of the time end up buying products that are suggested by them. The culture of a person is most of the time the reason how a person behaves in a certain situation, this is also true when it comes to buying behavior. For example, a person who belongs to a western culture will invest in a fine bottle of wine where as people from eastern culture may not find it worthy of spending so much money on. Culture is a very complicated faith of human behavior as it nurtures it and develops a perspective within a human being. Hence culture becomes very important while deciding on the buying behavior of an individual. Society and culture goes hand in hand and the society teaches to use a certain product or service. For example an individual learns how to use cutlery or how to shop from a super market(Kuan, Zhong, Chau, 2014). Reference group of people are under social factors which have significant potential of determining and manipulating consumer behavior. This impact varies from one person to another and also one product to another. The concept of an opinion leader also works in this group. This is a prime reason why brand have ambassadors to endorse their product or services(Chong, Xin, Yushi, 2016). Situational factors Ambience of a restaurant is a perfect example for situational factor which influences buying behavior. A lot of people will want to visit a restaurant in order to experience a unique setting and ambience. The situational factors are not permanent and can be easily changed. Fashion retail outlets design their interior in sync with the theme of the products they are selling example: lingerie items or boho chic or classic etc. It is found that the attractive packing also creates a situational buying factor (Jung Chang, Yan, Eckman, 2014). SWOT Analysis of the menu Strength of the menu The freshness and the high quality raw material ingredients which are used to prepare the food items in the menu are the most important strength of the restaurant. The management of the restaurant has made sure that the raw materials are supplied from trustworthy and credible suppliers so as to keep up with the high quality of the food. Another aspect of the restaurant which can be considered its strength is that the goodwill and popularity of the restaurant is wide spread any collaboration with the company will only enhance the idea about the quality of food and wine that is going to be served. Lastly, the food that is served under the inspection of head Chief Sean Marshall is surely sumptuous and delicious in nature(Bull, et al., 2016). Weakness of the menu One of the prominent weaknesses of the menu is that it is very limited and the vegetarian side of the menu is not as exciting as the non-vegetarian menu. Another weakness of the restaurant is that there are too many wine options to choose form which usually makes the customer confused when it comes to choosing from the long list. It is a restaurant and not a catering business hence it will be difficult for any company to deal with Matterhorn for catering orders. Catering is an additional service that Matterhorn can easily adapt(Hill, Jones, Schilling, 2014). Opportunities Catering is a new business idea that will fetch good clientele and revenue for the restaurant; it is a great opportunity and a good option for expansion and growth. The goodwill and popularity of the restaurant will help the business to get a good list of clients. Threat The biggest threat to Matterhorn is Ancestral is a restaurant that is headed by renowned award winning Chief and the menu reflects the authenticity in culture and taste exploring modern Cantonese and Sichuan flavors. Concentrating on innovating traditional flavor with textures and contemporary twists chief brings a unique taste to the menu. The popularity and the wide range of alcohol collection of Matterhorn can be the factor of interest for the buying center(Bull, et al., 2016). Take the company international If the management were to take the company international the best option for expansion for a New Zealand company is in Australia. There are several trade facilities and option of benefits available with the expansion in Australia as both the companies have treaties and agreements of international trade and commerce which will mutually benefit the interest of both the countries. There are a lot of Australian companies expanding in New Zealand vice versa. The target market and the psychological as well as behavioral pattern of the target market of both these countries are alike hence Australia will be a good option(Banalieva Dhanaraj, 2013). Segmentation, Targeting and Positioning Segmentation Based on the characteristic and requirement criteria companies divide the potential and existing customers into groups this is called market segmentation, by this process companies easily understand the mindset of the people. Theoretically the consumers that the company should be catering should be in the age group of 21-55. These people should be geographically located in wellington, New Zealand. The behavioral patterns of the target group pf people are the ones who want to enjoy a good meal with good music(Venter, Wright, Dibb, 2015). Psychographic division includes people who are willing to spend their money on good food and have a good time with friends or family. Practically the restaurant is open to all food and music lovers, the image of the brand is modest and unpretentious, people visit Matterhorn to have a good time enjoy food irrespective of the age, native country location, occupation etc. It is a wrong concept to think that a restaurant is open to all, behavioral and ps ychographic aspects of segmentation of target market plays a more important role in case of restaurant. If a person is hungry he or she will not end up going to a restaurant, they can also opt to cook at home and enjoy a meal at home. One of the biggest competitions to any restaurant business is the option of cooking at home. Hence, people with good taste in food and music are the basic target segment of the market that Matterhorn focuses on(Venter, Wright, Dibb, 2015). Target Marketing Strategy In order to market the restaurant to the target customers the best option is to keep up to the image that Matterhorn has built throughout. The company has a reputation of being modest and that is what should be the essence of the marketing strategies. The items in the menu are all moderately priced keeping in mind the diverse background of the people who visit Matterhorn. Similarly the wine and cocktail menu also have a choice for everyone. Social media is the platform that is best suited for a place like Matterhorn to communicate with the target audience. Facebook Twitter and Instagram pages should be updated to advertise the musicians who are going to perform at the restaurant(Bublitz Peracchio, 2015). Since the past record show that 70% of the crowd that gathers at the restaurant are young adults social media platform will be the best way to reach the target market. Even paid ads in the social media to promote the page of the restaurant will be a good investment. Keeping in mind the marketing mix theory of the 4Ps the marketing strategy is implemented to get more attention from the people the company wants to attract. Promotion is one of the Ps form the marketing mix and is a significant pillar in from a customer base and maximizing the sale of the restaurant(Bublitz Peracchio, 2015). Perceptual map Figure: Perceptual map Source: Authors Creation Bibliography Al-Shatanawi, H. A., Osman, A., Ab Halim, M. S. (2014). The Importance of Market Research in Implementing Marketing Programs. nternational Journal of Academic Research in Economics and Management Sciences , 150. Arora, N. Banerjee, N. (2017). Decline of Small Brands of Apparels in India. Factors That Influence Buying Behavior. Banalieva, E. R., Dhanaraj, C. (2013). Home-region orientation in international expansion strategies. Journal of International Business Studies , 89-116. Bublitz, M. G., Peracchio, L. A. (2015). Applying industry practices to promote healthy foods: An exploration of positive marketing outcomes. . Journal of Business Research , 2484-2493. Bull, J. W., Jobstvogt, N., Bhnke-Henrichs, A., Mascarenhas, A., Sitas, N., Baulcomb, C., et al. (2016). Strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats. A SWOT analysis of the ecosystem services framework. Ecosystem services , 99-111. Chong, X., Xin, G., Yushi, Z. (2016). Influence of Electronic Word of Mouth Marketing via Social Networking Website on Consumers' Group-buying Intention: Considering Mediating Effect of Brand Trust. Technology Economics, , 014. Forsgren, N. ., Sabherwal, R. (2015). Business Intelligence System Use as Levers of Control and Organizational Capabilities. Effects on Internal and Competitive Benefits. Greenland, S. J., Combe, I. A., Farrell, A. M. (2016). Stakeholder preference and stated vs derived importance satisfaction research. International Journal of Market Research , 35-56. Davenport, T. (2014). How strategists use big data to support internal business decisions, discovery and production. Strategy Leadership , 45-50. Hill, C. W., Jones, G. R., Schilling, M. A. (2014). Strategic management: theory: an integrated approach. Cengage Learning. Jung Chang, H., Yan, R. N., Eckman, M. (2014). Moderating effects of situational characteristics on impulse buying. International Journal of Retail Distribution Management , 298-314. Kuan, K. K., Zhong, Y. ., Chau, P. Y. (2014). Informational and normative social influence in group-buying: Evidence from self-reported and EEG data. Journal of Management Information Systems , 151-178. Sarstedt, M. ., Mooi, E. (2014). A concise guide to market research. The Process, Data, and. Thompson, E. R., Prendergast, G. P. (2015 ). The influence of trait affect and the five-factor personality model on impulse buying. Personality and Individual Differences , 216-221. Venter, P., Wright, A., Dibb, S. (2015). Performing market segmentation: a performative perspective. Journal of Marketing Management , 62-83. Zhao, Fan, Hu, . (2014). Business challenges and research directions of management analytics in the big data era. Journal of Management Analytics , 169-174.

THE EFFECTS OF ALTITUDE ON HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY Changes In Altitude Have A

THE EFFECTS OF ALTITUDE ON HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY Changes in altitude have a profound effect on the human body. The body attempts to maintain a state of homeostasis or balance to ensure the optimal operating environment for its complex chemical systems. Any change from this homeostasis is a change away from the optimal operating environment. The body attempts to correct this imbalance. One such imbalance is the effect of increasing altitude on the body's ability to provide adequate oxygen to be utilized in cellular respiration. With an increase in elevation, a typical occurrence when climbing mountains, the body is forced to respond in various ways to the changes in external environment. Foremost of these changes is the diminished ability to obtain oxygen from the atmosphere. If the adaptive responses to this stressor are inadequate the performance of body systems may decline dramatically. If prolonged the results can be serious or even fatal. In looking at the effect of altitude on b ody functioning we first must understand what occurs in the external environment at higher elevations and then observe the important changes that occur in the internal environment of the body in response. HIGH ALTITUDE In discussing altitude change and its effect on the body mountaineers generally define altitude according to the scale of high (8,000 - 12,000 feet), very high (12,000 - 18,000 feet), and extremely high (18,000+ feet), (Hubble, 1995). A common misperception of the change in external environment with increased altitude is that there is decreased oxygen. This is not correct as the concentration of oxygen at sea level is about 21% and stays relatively unchanged until over 50,000 feet (Johnson, 1988). What is really happening is that the atmospheric pressure is decreasing and subsequently the amount of oxygen available in a single breath of air is significantly less. At sea level the barometric pressure averages 760 mmHg while at 12,000 feet it is only 483 mmHg. T his decrease in total atmospheric pressure means that there are 40% fewer oxygen molecules per breath at this altitude compared to sea level (Princeton, 1995). HUMAN RESPIRATORY SYSTEM The human respiratory system is responsible for bringing oxygen into the body and transferring it to the cells where it can be utilized for cellular activities. It also removes carbon dioxide from the body. The respiratory system draws air initially either through the mouth or nasal passages. Both of these passages join behind the hard palate to form the pharynx. At the base of the pharynx are two openings. One, the esophagus, leads to the digestive system while the other, the glottis, leads to the lungs. The epiglottis covers the glottis when swallowing so that food does not enter the lungs. When the epiglottis is not covering the opening to the lungs air may pass freely into and out of the trachea. The trachea sometimes called the "windpipe" branches into two bronchi which in turn lead to a lung. Once in the lung the bronchi branch many times into smaller bronchioles which eventually terminate in small sacs called alveoli. It is in the alveoli that the actual transfer of oxygen to the blood takes place. The alveoli are shaped like inflated sacs and exchange gas through a membrane. The passage of oxygen into the blood and carbon dioxide out of the blood is dependent on three major factors: 1) the partial pressure of the gases, 2) the area of the pulmonary surface, and 3) the thickness of the membrane (Gerking, 1969). The membranes in the alveoli provide a large surface area for the free exchange of gases. The typical thickness of the pulmonary membrane is less than the thickness of a red blood cell. The pulmonary surface and the thickness of the alveolar membranes are not directly affected by a change in altitude. The partial pressure of oxygen, however, is directly related to altitude and affects gas transfer in the alveoli. GAS TRANSFER To understand gas trans fer it is important to first understand something about the behavior of gases. Each gas in our atmosphere exerts its own pressure and acts independently of the others. Hence the term partial pressure refers to the contribution of each gas to the entire pressure of the atmosphere. The average